Data repository
On this page you can find the data repository consisting of all the current psychological studies about COVID-19 in Belgium. For each study a short summary, take home messages and policy implications are provided. Studies are arranged in alphabetical order based on the first author's name.
There are two options to search through the list of studies. You can either use different filters that select the information based on the population's age category, the type of population or main topic addressed. The other option is to use the search bar to look for specific keywords. The filters and search function can’t be used together. The data repository is only available in English.
If you would want to add a study to the data repository, please fill out this document. We would like to kindly ask you to make sure all columns are filled out. Any additional questions about the data repository can be sent to Alix.Bigot@gmail.com or hannah.de.laet@vub.be.
OR
Intimate Relationships in Times of COVID-19: A Descriptive Study of Belgian Partners and their Perceived Well-Being
Sels, L., Galdiolo, S., Gaugue, J., Geonet, M., Verhelst, P., Chiarolanza, Randall, A.K., Verhofstadt, L.
Short summary
How did couples in Belgium cope during the early phases of the COVID-19 pandemic? In this study, grounded in relationship science, we investigated in a descriptive manner several factors that could affect how couples perceived individual and relational wellbeing during this time. Specifically, we examined the associations between gender, sexual orientation, parental status, and relationship duration on participants’ self-reported individual and relational well-being after the first lockdown (more generally and more specific in response to COVID-19). Additionally, we investigated if relational well-being predicted perceived change in individual well-being from pre- to post-COVID-19 regulations. To test these hypotheses, self-report data was collected during the Summer of 2020 in both the Dutch and French speaking part of Belgium. Data from 679 participants suggested that individual and relational well-being only differed based on parental status (and not by gender nor sexual orientation). Importantly, parents reported lower relational well-being than participants without children, while participants without children reported higher perceived increases in depression. People that had been in a relationship for longer also reported lower relational well-being, but this relationship was explained by other confounding factors. Relational well-being buffered increases in individual distress that people perceived to have occurred pre-COVID-19 regulations to after COVID-19 regulations went into effect. These findings might inform practice and policy for individuals in a romantic relationship during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Take home message
The quality of intimate relationships plays a crucial role in people’s mental health and well-being, and the important buffering, or on the contrary harmful role, that intimate relationships can play in people’s well-being during these times should therefore not be overlooked. In our study, relational well-being was indeed associated with less perceived increases in depression, anxiety, and stress during COVID-19.
Policy implications
mental health workers and policy makers may put more effort -either preventative or curative- into fostering high-quality intimate relationships, for example by highlighting the mutually supporting role of partners, especially in times where the partner is often the only source of support. To this end, not only a focus on strengthening the individuals’ relationships by calling on the individuals themselves, but also by addressing constraints of the ecological niche couples are embedded in, might be necessary to improve partners relational and individual outcomes. For instance, special attention could be paid to specific subgroups, and interventions tailored to these subgroups. For parents, interventions that lighten their responsibilities might helpful, in order to allow them to invest more time and energy in their intimate relationship At the same time, couples without children seem to have less relational, but more individual needs in times of stressful events like COVID-19, and it might worthy to explore how both relationship partners can help each other dealing with depressive feelings resulting from restricted life circumstances.
Influence of the Belgian Coast on Well-Being During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Severin, M.I., Vandegehuchte, M., Hooyberg, A., Buysse, A., Raes, F. & Everaert, G
Short summary
There is increasing evidence that blue spaces, particularly coastal environments, are beneficial for well-being. During the first-wave lockdown of the COVID-19 pandemic in Belgium, access to the coast was restricted due to restraint in circulation. Making use of this unique opportunity, this study investigated whether access and visits to the coast were positively associated with well-being by using a quasi-experimental design. The emotions of awe and nostalgia were studied as potential mediators between coastal visits and well-being. A total of 687 Flemish adults took part in an online survey that was launched end of April until beginning of June 2020. After controlling for covariates, results showed that access to the coast, but not visit frequency, was positively associated with well-being. More specifically, coastal residents reported less boredom and worry, and more happiness than inland residents. Awe and nostalgia were not associated with coastal visits, but awe was negatively correlated with boredom. The study suggests a potential buffer effect of residential proximity to the coast against negative psychological consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic, supporting the notion that the coast has a positive impact on well-being.
Take home message
1. Having access to the Belgian coast during the first-wave lockdown was associated with a higher wellbeing, suggesting a potential buffer effect of the coast against negative psychological consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic.
2. Mechanisms remain unclear but the emotion of awe triggered by the coast could be a protective factor against boredom.
Policy implications
1. Policy-makers and health practitioners should consider making use of the coast to prevent further strain on mental health for future crises.
2. To optimize the coastal experience, more investigation is needed to understand the psychological pathways through which the coast improves wellbeing, particularly with its triggered emotions.
Under review
Influence of the Belgian Coast on Well-Being During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Severin, M.I., Vandegehuchte, M.B., Hooyberg, A., Buysse, A., Raes, F. and Everaert, G.
Short summary
There is increasing evidence that blue spaces, particularly coastal environments, are beneficial for well-being. During the first-wave lockdown of the COVID-19 pandemic in Belgium, access to the coast was restricted due to restraint in circulation. Making use of this unique opportunity, this study investigated whether access and visits to the coast were positively associated with well-being by using a quasi-experimental design. The emotions of awe and nostalgia were studied as potential mediators between coastal visits and well-being. A total of 687 Flemish adults took part in an online survey that was launched end of April until beginning of June 2020. After controlling for covariates, results showed that access to the coast, but not visit frequency, was positively associated with well-being. More specifically, coastal residents reported less boredom and worry, and more happiness than inland residents. Awe and nostalgia were not associated with coastal visits, but awe was negatively correlated with boredom. The study suggests a potential buffer effect of residential proximity to the coast against negative psychological consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic, supporting the notion that the coast has a positive impact on well-being.
Take home message
1. Having access to the Belgian coast during the first-wave lockdown was associated with a higher wellbeing, suggesting a potential buffer effect of the coast against negative psychological
consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic.
2. Mechanisms remain unclear but the emotion of awe triggered by the coast could be a protective factor against boredom.
Policy implications
1. Policy-makers and health practitioners should consider making use of the coast to prevent further strain on mental health for future crises.
2. To optimize the coastal experience, more investigation is needed to understand the psychological pathways through which the coast improves wellbeing, particularly with its
triggered emotions.
Home confinement during the COVID-19: day-to-day associations of sleep quality with rumination, psychotic-like experiences, and somatic symptoms
Simor, P., Polner, B., Báthori, N., Sifuentes-Ortega, R., Van Roy, A., Albajara Sáenz, A., Luque González, A., Benkirane, O., Nagy, T., & Peigneux, P.
Short summary
Take home message
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, populations from many countries have been confined at home for extended periods of time in stressful environmental and media conditions. Cross-sectional studies already evidence deleterious psychological consequences, with poor sleep as a risk factor for impaired mental health. However, limitations of cross-sectional assessments are response bias tendencies, and the inability to track daily fluctuations in specific subjective experiences in extended confinement conditions. In a prospective study conducted across three European countries, we queried participants (N = 166) twice a day through an online interface about their sleep quality and their negative psychological experiences for two consecutive weeks. Focus was set on between-and within-person associations of subjective sleep quality with daytime experiences such as rumination, psychotic-like experiences, and somatic complaints about the typical symptoms of the coronavirus. Results show that daily reports of country-specific COVID-19 deaths predicted increased negative mood, psychotic-like experiences and somatic complaints during the same day, and decreased subjective sleep quality the following night. Disrupted sleep was globally associated with negative psychological outcomes during the study period, and a relatively poorer night of sleep predicted increased rumination, psychotic-like experiences, and somatic complaints the following day. This temporal association was not paralleled by daytime mental complaints predicting relatively poorer sleep quality on the following night. Our findings show that night-to-night changes in sleep quality predict how individuals cope the next day with daily challenges induced by home confinement.
Policy implications
Developing awareness about sleep quality and its impact on psychological status in situations of stress
COVID-19 and children: emotional and behavioral impact
Stassart, C., Wagener, A. & Etienne, A-M.
Short summary
This exploratory study assesses parents' perception of the emotional and behavioral impact of quarantine following Covid-19 on their child aged between 4 and 13 years old. The total sample includes the assessment of 749 children, aged between 4 and 13 (353 girls, 396 boys) with 524 parents interviewed. The emotional and behavioral changes observed in their child during quarantine, family coexistence, as well as the frequency of social contact before and during quarantine were investigated. Most parents report a change in their child's emotional and behavioral state. The main results show that the child's nervousness due to Covid-19, family coexistence during quarantine which represents the difficulty of living together, and social contacts before and during quarantine seem to explain the different emotional and behavioral changes observed in children during quarantine.
Take home message
Take care of family cohesion: through repeated evaluation, difficulties in living together within the family to act early (eg: take time for yourself, pass the baton momentarily, ...) - Maintain social contacts: social ties improve a child's resilience skills in complex situations. Creative approaches to stay connected are therefore very important (eg writing letters, video conversations, etc.) - Create a secure emotional environment: Importance of maintaining a routine to give children a sense of security and predictability such as setting regular bed and mealtimes, daily learning and play times.
Policy implications
Have appropriate communication: Faced with children's concerns and questions, it is important to have honest communication that is appropriate to the child's age. Children's exposure to social media and adult conversations about the pandemic should be limited as these channels are less age appropriate.
Under review
To Punish or to Assist? Divergent Reactions to In-group and Out-group Members Disobeying Social Distancing
Van Assche, J., Politi, E., Van Dessel, P., & Phalet, K.
Short summary
In response to the COVID‐19 pandemic, societies face the formidable challenge of developing sustainable forms of sociability‐cumsocial‐distancing – enduring social life while containing the virus and preventing new outbreaks. Accordant public policies often balance between retributive (punishment‐based) and assistance (solidarity‐based) measures to foster responsible behaviour. Yet, the uncontrolled spreading of the disease has divided public opinion about which measures are best suited, and it has made salient group disparities in behaviour, potentially straining intergroup relations, elevating heated emotions, and undercutting coordinated international responses. In a 2 × 2 between‐subjects experiment, British citizens (N = 377) read about national in‐group or outgroup members (categorical differentiation), who were either conforming to or deviating from the corona regulations (normative differentiation). Participants then reported moral emotions towards the target national group and indicated support for public policies. In general, support for assistance policies outweighed support for retributive measures. Second, however, norm deviation was associated with less positive and more negative moral emotions, the latter category further relating to more punitiveness and less assistance support. Finally, respondents who read about norm‐violating outgroup members especially reported support for retributive measures, indicating that people might use norm deviation to justify outgroup derogation. We discuss implications for policymakers and formulate future research avenues.
Take home message
1. In general, people are more in favor of assistance (solidarity-based) confinement measures, because retributive (punishment-based) policies go against core democratic values such as personal freedom.
2. News reports about norm-deviating groups trigger negative emotions (e.g., anger, condemnation, disgust), which can cause support for retributive measures.
3. Support for retributive measures was highest when people read news about norm-violating foreigners, indicating that people might blame foreigners for spreading the virus rather than fellow nationals that disobey hygiene standards and social distancing.
Policy implications
Do Psychological Needs Play a Role in Times of Uncertainty? Associations with Well-being During the Covid-19 Crisis
Vansteenkiste, M. et al.
Short summary
Across the world, measures were taken to contain the spreading of the Covid-19 virus. Many of these measures caused a sudden rupture in people’s daily routines, thereby eliciting considerable uncertainty and potentially also hampering the satisfaction of individuals’ psychological needs for autonomy, relatedness, and competence. Drawing upon Maslow’s Hierarchical Need Theory and Self-Determination Theory, this study examined the unique roles of felt uncertainty and the psychological needs, as well as their dynamic interplay, in the prediction of mental health. A large and heterogeneous sample of adults (N = 5118; Mage = 43.45 years) was collected during the first ten days of the lockdown period in [details removed for peer review]. A subsample (N = 835, Mage = 41.39) participated during a second wave one week later. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that felt uncertainty, need satisfaction and need frustration all independently predicted individuals’ well-being (life satisfaction, sleep quality) and ill-being (depressive symptoms, anxiety), with little systematic evidence for interactions between the predictors. The pattern of findings obtained concurrently largely held in the longitudinal analyses. Finally, results showed that associations between felt insecurity and lower well-being were partially mediated by psychological needs. Overall, the findings suggest that satisfaction of the psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness is not just a ‘luxury good’. Satisfaction of these needs is important also in times of uncertainty, while need frustration represents a risk factor for maladjustment during these times.
Take home message
1. Insecurity is an independent source of especially ill-being; in attachment also a graph which shows that the unpredictable character of the situation is most elevated (more than financial & health-related insecurities)
2. Investing in psychological need satisfaction is critical to replenish individuals’ energetic resources
3. Early adults are more vulnerable for ill-being and need frustrations
Policy implications
1. Invest in a traffic light system to enhance predictability of the situation
2. Build a social project to foster higher relatedness need satisfaction
3. Avoid too restrictive measures that unnecessarily reduce our autonomy
4. Invest in on-line programs that foster greater need satisfaction (we are currently developing such a tool)
5. Create a ‘coronahulplijn’ as the complaints of individuals will often deal with these basic issues (insecurity, autonomy, competence, relatedness)
Under Review
Adherence to Covid-19 Measures: The Critical Role of Voluntary Motivation on a Short- and Long-Term Basis
Vansteenkiste, M. et al.
Short summary
To limit the spreading of the SARS-CoV-2-virus, governments worldwide have introduced much-needed, yet often intrusive, measures that require considerable effort from their citizens. Grounded in Self-Determination Theory, the present research sought to examine in a very large and heterogeneous sample of Belgian citizens the cross-sectional (N = 45975, Mage = 50.42; Study 1), week-to-week (N = 981, Mage = 41.32; Study 2), and long-term (N = 5643, Mage = 53.09; Study 3) associations between individuals’ various motives to follow government guidelines and their self-reported adherence and defiance to these measures. Controlling for covid-specific worry and perceived risk for infection, identified motivation related positively to citizens’ concurrent adherence (Study 1), their increased week-to-week adherence during the lockdown (Study 2), and their persistent adherence during an exit phase (Study 3). An opposite pattern of findings emerged with defiance as an outcome. In contrast, although the unique contribution of external motivation was less strong, it related to poorer adherence and greater defiance, both concurrently (Study 1) and longitudinally (Study 3). The findings indicate that citizens’ voluntary motivation is a robust predictor of adherence, suggesting that policy makers do well to adopt a motivating style that ongoingly fosters internalized motivation.
Take home message
1. Fostering voluntary responsibility to adhere to the measures is critical
2. Pressured motivation does not predict adherence and even backfires, as indicated by elevated defiance
3. Motivational processes are dynamic, varying from week to week
4. Risk perceptions do contribute to higher voluntary motivation
5. Worry is not a good predictor of adherence
Policy implications
1. Avoid pressuring communication
2. Explain the necessity and impact of measures on flattening the curve
3. Maintain high risk awareness, for instance, through the traffic light system or the corona footprint
4. Avoid anxiety-induction, especially if people are not capable to handle the worry
Under review
Impact of covid-19 lockdown on employees' work-family balance, social support, and burnout
Vullinghs, J., Vantilborgh, T. & Driver, C.
Short summary
Early 2020, the world was shocked by the COVID-19 pandemic. To stop the spread of the virus and alleviate pressure on healthcare systems, governments took measures such as the complete lockdown of cities and states. However, the side effects of these measures are not yet well understood. In this study we examine the impact of the COVID-19 lockdown on employee wellbeing and specifically address the time course of these effects. We contribute to the literature by demonstrating that the COVID-19 lockdown was experienced as a stressor by the participants in our study, while demonstrating the rate of change and duration of these effects on employee wellbeing. Moreover, we test the causal order of the dimensions underlying burnout, thus contributing by showing how burnout develops over time. We tested our hypotheses in a sample of 120 employees, who’s work experiences we measured weekly over 35 weeks. We analyzed these data using Hierarchical Bayesian Continuous Time Dynamic Modeling (Driver & Voelkle, 2018a). Our results show that the lockdown has both positive and negative effects on employees’ wellbeing, yet the negative effects of the COVID-19 lockdown increase over the measured time period. Moreover, our results reveal complex feedback loops between the burnout dimensions, with emotional exhaustion driving increases in cynicism and decreases in professional efficacy, while cynicism simultaneously acted as an inhibitor by increasing professional efficacy.
Take home message
We find that the lockdown led to an increase in work-to-life spillover, a decrease in resources, and had a mixed impact on burnout symptoms (increase in cynicism and decrease in exhaustion). These effects worsened as the lockdown continued.
Policy implications
Governments need to carefully balance the need for a lockdown against the potential consequences on the wellbeing of employees.
Ongoing
The theory of planned behavior during the COVID-19 pandemic:
A comparison of health behaviors between Belgian and French residents
Wollast, R., Schmitz, M., Bigot, A., & Luminet, O.
Short summary
The COVID-19 pandemic presents a global crisis and authorities have encouraged the population to promote preventive health behaviors to slow the spread of the virus. While the literature on psychological factors influencing health behaviors during the COVID-19 is flourishing, there is a lack of cross-national research focusing on multiple health behaviors. The present study overcomes this limitation and affords a validation of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) as a conceptual framework for explaining the adoption of handwashing and limitation of social contacts, two health behaviors that highly differ in their nature. Specifically, we compare TPB model on these two protective behaviors among people living in Belgium (N = 3744) and France (N = 1060) during the COVID-19 sanitary crisis. Data were collected from March 18 until April 19, 2020, which corresponds to the spring lockdown and the first peak of the pandemic in these countries. Results indicated that more positive attitudes, greater social pressure, increased perceived control and higher intentions were related to higher adherence to handwashing and limitation of social contacts, for both Belgian and French residents. Ultimately, we argued that the TPB model is a more universal rather than culture-specific process in explaining health behaviors, when comparing handwashing and limitation of social contacts among individuals living in different national contexts.
Take home message
While specific communication strategies should be encouraged to promote preventive behaviors, they should consider the role of attitudes, social pressure and perceived ability in order to find a balance between physical and mental health.
Policy implications
- governments, policymakers, health institutions, and experts should find out communication plans that support increasing willingness of people through favorable attitudinal changes toward such health behaviors
- These communication strategies should encourage COVID-19 preventive behaviors while taking into account the role of family, peers and colleagues in developing and maintaining health behaviors, as well as the difficulty for some individuals to apply some of these behaviors
Accepted
The Role of Ego Integrity and Despair in Older Adults’ Well-being during the Covid-19 Crisis: The Mediating Role of Need-based Experiences
van der Kaap-Deeder, J., Vermote, B., Waterschoot, J., Soenens, B., Morbée, S. & Vansteenkiste, M.
Short summary
The Covid-19 pandemic has affected people across the world, with older adults being particularly at risk for the negative (side) effects associated with this crisis. Relying on a cross-fertilization between Erikson’s personality theory and Self-Determination Theory, this study aimed to examine possible sources of resilience (i.e., ego integrity and need satisfaction) and vulnerability (i.e., despair and need frustration) in older adults’ (mal)adjustment, thereby additionally considering the role of multiple risk and protective factors (e.g., gender and marital status). During the second month of the lockdown period in Belgium, 693 older adults (Mage = 70.06, SD = 4.48, range: 65 – 89 years, 62.1% female) filled out online questionnaires concerning the study variables, while also completing assessments of several important sociodemographic factors. Structural equation modeling showed that both ego integrity and despair related to indicators of well-being and ill-being through experienced need satisfaction and need frustration. Additionally, we found several factors to protect (e.g., higher perceived income) or diminish (e.g., being widowed) older adults’ well-being during these challenging times, with little evidence for a moderating role of these factors in associations between the psychological variables. Theoretical and practical implications of these results are discussed.
Take home message
1. Ego-integrity and despair serve as resilience and vulnerability factors to handle this crisis
2. Psychological need satisfactions (autonomy, competence, relatedness) are also critical in this group
3. Especially single are more vulnerable for ill-being, while those having access to a larger set of communication tools are better protected against loneliness
Policy implications
1. Provide assistance to elderly to be more skilled in using diverse communication strategies (whatsapp, skype, etc.)
2. Investing in need satisfactions among elderly and in homes for older adults is critical, partially through relaxations of the measures but also other need-satisfying activities
3. The current crisis may lead older individuals to engage in a life review, which may be fairly confrontational for some, thereby eliciting despair. Psychological assistance may touch upon this issue.